An Annotated Bibliography

Annotated Bibliography for The Journal of Madam Knight: A Transition Told Through Textiles

“Anecdotes of Dress.” The Literary Magazine, and American Register (1803-1807) 8.48 (1807): 118. American Periodicals. Web. 23 Sept. 2011.   The anonymous author of “Anecdotes of Dress” provides an overview of the evolution of dress, from Adam and Eve’s fig leaves to knit and later woven clothing.  The author then describes the fashions of English rulers, including Edward the Confessor, William Rufus, Henry (I, II, III, IV, V, and VI), Edward (I, II, III, and IV), Richard (II, and III), Queen Anne, Queen Mary, Queen Elizabeth, and Charles (I and II).  The author describes these leaders’ fashion, from their hairstyles to types of shoes in an attempt to give a “sketch of the former times” (118). Because this article really captured an evolution of fashion and also provided a brief description of petticoats—which I originally wanted to make the focus of my project—I initially hoped to use this source in my paper.  However, after narrowing my project’s focus to early eighteenth-century Boston, the source did not really fit within the time period or scope of my paper. 

Baumgarten, Linda. “Chapter 2: The Myths and Meanings of Clothes.” What Clothes Reveal: The Language of Clothing in Colonial and Federal America. Williamsburg and New Haven: The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation in association with Yale UP, 2002. 52-75. Print.  Baumgarten, like Laurel Ulrich, explores the messages that clothes send: the clothes people chose to wear in Colonial New England often conveyed symbolic messages about the wearer, such as one’s wealth and status. For instance, she explains that a gleaming white linen shirt demonstrated that a man was wealthy and did not engage in physical labor, while a bright colored tie could symbolize a man’s sexual energy.  After presenting many symbolic descriptions and numerous pictures, Baumgarten concludes that while the symbolic nature of clothing cannot be easily documented in written records, artifacts from the period can help us collect such information.  I did not include this in my article; however, after describing the chapter in this annotation, I am now going to reconsider implementing it in my final paper.  Either way, this information makes me feel more at ease in fielding questions at the conference, because Baumgarten’s argument suggests that my article holds worth—Knight’s travel journal serves to fill a gap in the clothing archive.

Bosworth, Benjamin. “Signs of Apostacy Lamented.” Boston: n.p., 1693. Evans Digital. Web. 4 Oct. 2011.   Bosworth’s poem sends the message that Christians should not convey pride through their fashion.  He especially attacks periwigs, asserting that they are a mark of pride.  He explains that Christians should instead adopt humility.  I was not going to use this in my paper, as I had already chosen Mather’s Ornaments for the Daughters of Zion and Allestree’s The Lady’s Calling as my evidence that humility was a highly valued trait in eighteenth-century New England.  However, since the process of writing this annotation caused me to revisit the text, while rereading it I decided to use a quote from this poem as a subheading.  I believe that the lines I chose really capture how serious religious leaders were about enforcing expressions of modesty in their towns.

Bush, Sargeant. “Introduction to ‘The Journal of Madam Knight.’” Journeys in New Worlds.  Eds. William Andrews, Sargent Bush, Jr., Annete Kolodny, Amy Lang, and Daniel Shea.  Madison, WI: U of Wisconsin P, 1990.  67-84.  Print.  Bush sets a cultural and historical context for Sarah Kemble Knight’s journey from Boston to New Haven, providing the reader with information that he/she may not know when reading her travel narrative.  For example (to name one of many), Bush tells the reader that Knight would have written the journal not for publication, but for the enjoyment of family and friends.  I refer to this text in my article when I set a context of Madam Knight’s journey for my reader.

“Fashion’s the Word!” The Boston Magazine, Containing a Collection of Instructive and Entertaining Essays 1 (1783): 8. American Periodicals. Web. 3 Oct. 2011.  The anonymous author of this magazine article emphasizes the frivolity of following fashion for the sake of obeying the latest trend.  As an example, he/she gives the example of a short woman wearing a hoop skirt that was “wide, if not wider, that she was high” (8), which made her look ridiculous.  I had originally hoped to use this source to explore the symbolism of petticoats, but when I shifted my focus to Madam Knight’s reactions to clothes on her journey, this source no longer held high relevance to my article.

Hayes, Kevin J. “Conduct Books.” A Colonial Woman’s Bookshelf. Knoxville: U of Tennessee P, 1996. 58-79. Print.   Hayes’ chapter, “Conduct Books,” describes the role conduct manuals played in the lives of women during the seventeenth and eighteenth century as he chronologically highlights and describes the most popular conduct literature of these centuries.  I used this discussion to help me decide which conduct books to refer to in my article.  I chose Allestree’s The Lady’s Calling because Hayes identified it as the earliest one and also as one that would commonly be found on a colonial woman’s bookshelf.  I also chose Mather’s Ornaments for the Daughters of Zion because—in addition to its high circulation among early seventeenth-century society—Hayes identifies it as the earliest “homegrown” woman’s conduct book.  Thus Hayes’ discussion of conduct books helped me to pick seminal ones to frame my argument.

Hoop-petticoats Arraigned and Condemned by the Light of Nature, and Law of God. Boston: James Franklin in Queen-Street, 1772. Evans Digital. Web. 22 Sept. 2011.   This satire of sermons and texts, which spoke against the wearing of hoop-petticoats (such as Reverend Solomon Stoddard’s “Answer to Some Cases of Conscience” from 1722), aimed to make such warnings against the petticoat appear silly.  For instance, he discusses that petticoats do not protect the body from cold weather, but adds, “it may be some had rather part with their Health than their Hoops” (3).  Later he jokes that the wide petticoats may prevent women from entering the narrow gate of heaven.  I initially planned on utilizing this text when my focus was going to be on petticoats, but when I chose Knight’s travel journal as my primary text, I moved away from a focus on petticoats toward a focus on jewelry and other types of clothing instead.

Horton, Shaun. “Of Pastors and Petticoats: Humor and Authority in Puritan New England.” The New England Quarterly LXXXII.4 (2009): 608-36. MLA International Bibliography. Web. 23 Sept. 2011.  Shaun Horton employs the theories of Henri Bergson and Sigmund Freud to explain how authors in Eighteenth Century New England used humor to subvert social authority.  After explaining Bergson’s and Freud’s theories which both assert that jokes function to challenge systems of power, Horton explains that the petticoat became a popular symbolic vehicle for such humor and how hooped petticoats provided not only physical freedom for women (in their deviation from clingy underskirts), but also freedom for authors to undermine the social order in their satires by ridiculing those who took the petticoats seriously.  Again, I planned on referencing this text to explain what petticoats represented in eighteenth-century New England society (and to discuss the satire surrounding the conversation of petticoats).  However, when I had trouble locking down a primary text that involved petticoats, I chose to discuss Madam Knight’s journal, which omits any discussion of petticoats.  Thus, this article lies outside the scope of my article.

Imbarrato, Susan Clair. “Chapter 2: Ordinary Travel—Public Houses and Travel Conditions.” Traveling Women. Athens: Ohio UP, 2006. 53-88. Print.  Imbarrato gives a detailed description of what taverns and lodging accommodations would have looked like in Early America.  In fact, she explains that travel narratives (like The Journal of Madam Knight) help fill the gaps surrounding Early American travel and lodging.  Furthermore, she emphasizes that taverns were a “communication hub [that] facilitated social interaction” and “the mixing of classes” (56).  While I did not reference this chapter directly in my paper, it (and the book as a whole) provided me with important context for reading travel literature (more specifically, Knight’s journal), and I now feel more comfortable answering questions at the conference regarding travel conditions and tavern life.

Mayer, Ruth. “‘Intollerable Excesse and Bravery’: On Dressing Up in Puritan New England.” Styling Texts: Dress and Fashion in Literature. Ed. Cindy Carlson. Youngstown, NY: Cambria, 2007. 91-110. Print.   Mayer discusses the importance of clothing and appearance in Early American society.  Not only did the Mathers speak against flashy attire, but a sense of self-division pervaded seventeenth-century people, as “the outward appearance of righteousness mask[ed] inward and essential corruption” (qtd. in Mayer 103).  Mayer discusses this masquerade on various levels, from wearing acceptable clothing to following certain religious practices in order to mask their true beliefs—acts Mayer calls “masquerades of the soul” (100).  The article especially caught my attention because of the application of masquerade theory (a personal research interest of mine).  However, I did not directly refer to this source in my paper, but instead went directly to Cotton Mathers’ text, Ornaments for the Daughters of Zion, to make my claims.  This would be an interesting text to integrate into further research of Early American dress.

Mentor. “General Observations on Fashion in Dress; With Particular Remarks on Certain Female Ornaments.” The Universal Asylum and Columbian Magazine (1790-1792). April (1790): 217. American Periodicals. Web. 3 Oct. 2011.   The columnist, known as Mentor, argues that fashion should be ornamental that clothes should appear “pleasing and agreeable, in the eyes of others” (217).  He says that society ought not condemn a woman who emphasizes her “charms” or a man for trying to get ahead in the world by drawing attention to his external appearance.  However, Mentor says that women should show off their natural bodies, because men want to know the appearances of the women they are courting.  He says, “[I]n our [men’s] eyes, a country girl, with the ornament of her own hair, and a jacket and petticoat for her dress, will have infinitely more charms than the finest lady, disguised in the modern inventions of Wind-Craws, Craped-Cushions, Bishops, and Cork-Rumps” (217).  I found this article intriguing, as it contrasts with the religious texts of the early eighteenth century.  However, it did not fit in with the views of Madam Knight, and thus did not fit in my paper.  I would like to use these additional sources to write another piece on fashion in Early America, because I found my extra articles fascinating.  I really felt as if I was acquiring a glimpse into eighteenth-century culture as I conducted research on this topic.

Michaelsen, Scott. "Narrative and Class in a Culture of Consumption: The Significance of Stories in Sarah Kemble Knight's Journal." MLA International Database 21.2 (1994): n.p. Web. 23 Sept. 2011.   Michaelson argues that The Journal of Madam Knight should be presented as one of America’s seminal texts for thinking through issues of self and other.  He argues that current anthologies that include her journal often mirror her “class racist” attitude in the way they introduce her text to readers.  For instance, in an introduction to Knight’s Journal in the Norton Anthology, the author calls her “a keen observer of provincial America and a woman who did not suffer fools gladly” (qtd. in para. 3).  Michaelson asks, who are these “fools”?  Country dwellers and Native Americans?  Michaelson thus encourages us to evaluate and critique Knight’s attitude instead of adopt it.  I found this text insightful, and I use it in my article to emphasize the “class racist,” secular attitude of Knight.

The Origin of the Whale Bone-petticoat. A Satyr. Boston: 1-8, 1714. Evans Digital. Web. 23 Sept. 2011.   The satirist of this poem responds to the critics of the petticoat by examining the origin and explaining that a prostitute invented it in an attempt to conceal her pregnancy.  Thus, he suggests that the ministers are worried about the wrong aspect of the petticoat—worse than being flashy, the petticoats mirror the fashions of the “whore that was the Architect” (7).  I originally thought I would use this source when I planned to write about the symbolism and portrayal of petticoats in Early America, but when I changed my scope, this source was no longer directly relevant to my topic.

Spengemann, William C. “The Poetics of Adventure.” The Adventurous Muse: The Poetics of American Fiction, 1789-1900. New Haven: Yale UP, 1977. 6-67. Print.  Spengemann describes various voyages through Early America chronologically, beginning with Columbus. However, the part that I read was the section that discussed Madam Knight (pages 41-45).  I refer to this text when I talk about the distinction between Knight’s commentary and her judgments because he has names for these two voices: experiencing and judging (43).

Stern, Julia.  “To Relish and Spew:  Disgust as Cultural Critique in the Journal of Madam Knight.”  Legacy.  14.1 (1997):  n.p.  MLA International Database. Web. 23 Sept. 2011.   Stern questions the classification that critics have given The Journal of Madam Knight.  While some call it a satire, it does not actually provide a “censure of folly and wickedness” (para. 6).  Instead, Madam Knight’s journal mirrors the sharp tongues of the women she criticizes.  Stern asserts that Knight looks down on others who have uncensored tongues, who prepare unfamiliar food, and who practice unfamiliar (or “animalistic” from Knight’s perspective) social practices.  Her vomit then becomes a medium for her to express her disgust over offensive service by people she deems lower than herself.  In my literature review, I reference Stern’s point that Knight writes from a secular perspective, but I do not utilize her article much further.  While I find her link between food and Knight’s classification of people interesting and valid, my paper focuses more on her link between clothing and class.

Stoddard, Solomon. An Answer to Some Cases of Conscience. Boston: Green for Gerrish, 1722. Evans Digital. Web. 6 Oct. 2011.  Stoddard’s sermon, like a conduct manual, articulates acceptable and unacceptable Puritan behavior.  Set up as a “Question” and “Answer” document, Stoddard answers questions, such as, “Is it lawful to wear long hair?” (4) by quoting scripture and providing additional commentary.  I feel that reading this document helped me gain a better picture of conduct literature and sermons that dictated life during the eighteenth-century New England, but I did not cite this source directly.  Prompted by Hayes’ A Colonial Women’s Bookshelf, I chose to refer to a sermon by Mather and a conduct book by Allestree to set a context for conduct literature during Knight’s time.

“To the Editors of the Boston Magazine: Essay on Vanity.” The Boston Magazine, Containing a Collection of Instructive and Entertaining Essays, in the Various Branches of Useful, and Polite Literature 1 (1784): 223. American Periodicals. Web. 23 Sept. 2011.   The author of this article defines vanity as a “desire to be admired” and warns the reader of its capability to captivate one’s soul.  The author also asserts that rich people and beautiful women are most often victims to vanity, because they display attributes other people want and admire. The author ends by telling those who are vain to “be more artful in [their] hypocrisy” and to utilize new methods to appear religious.  This piece reminds me of Mayer’s “‘Intollerable Excesse and Bravery’: On Dressing Up in Puritan New England” because the author seems to suggest that masquerade is necessary to conceal pride, and that true humility is hard to achieve.  While this article did not fit within the scope of my paper, I could possibly pair this article with Mayer’s in a future paper about masquerade and religion in Early America.

A Treatise on Dress: Intended as a Friendly and Seasonable Warning to the Daughters of America.  New Haven:  Thomas and Samuel Green, 1783.  Evans Digital. Web.  23 Sept. 2011.   This anonymous essay condemns immodest attire, and classifies modest apparel as clothing without embroidery or gold.  From clothing to hair, the author uses biblical scripture to dictate what constitutes a modest display.  This essay demonstrates that society had gotten away from plain dress by 1783, as this author seems to be attempting to rein in fashion, back to a time where it was more plain.  I had to pick and choose which primary texts to use in my article, and this one—while it supports my point that culture began to view fashion in a more secular manner—did not work as well as others.  I chose conduct literature that was more widely circulated.

Ulrich, Laurel.  “Introduction.” The Age of Homespun: Objects and Stories in the Creation of an American Myth. New York: Vintage Books, 2001. Print.  Ulrich describes the shift from homespun textiles to industrialized clothing, and she uses Horace Bushnell’s secular sermon as a framework for describing this transition.  I refer to this text in my article to contextualize the transition that Knight represents; her classification is possible due to the marker that clothes become once clothing is industrialized.  When clothing was homespun, poorer families could blend in with others.  Once clothing moved away from the home, it began to convey signs of one’s socioeconomic status—a shift Knight notices.

---. “Chapter 4: Pretty Gentlewomen.” Good Wives: Image and Reality in the Lives of Women in Northern New England 1650-1750. New York: Vintage Books, 1982.  Ulrich describes the shift from homespun to industrialized clothing, similar to the description in Age of Homespun, but in this text she relates it to how women’s role in the home was affected.  She explains that while women still focused on their housewifery, “the Rule of Industry prevailed” (70).  I implement one of Ulrich’s case studies (based on eighteenth-century letter correspondences between a mother and her son) in my paper to illustrate the country/city and the homespun/industrialized chasms.

Waterhouse, Harriet. “A Fashionable Confinement: Waleboned Stays and the Pregnant Woman.” Constume, 41 (2007): 53-65. MLA International Bibliography. Web. 6 Oct. 2011.  Waterhouse describes the evolving opinions of what a petticoat should look like for a pregnant woman during the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries.  While many viewed pregnancy as an indelicate condition to be hidden away, little evidence suggests that women reduced their daily activities.  Thus, Waterhouse explains how women attempted to hide their bulging bellies, from tying their corsets tightly (risking the baby’s health and well-being), to making bigger “stomachers” to allow for the enlarged stomach, to designing all new corsets.  Inclusive of corset patterns and pictures, her discussion was thorough and clear.  I may use this article in a future research project, along with all of my other documents regarding petticoats.